Answer:
There are prion-like particles in the brain normally, and when these become abnormal they can cause disease. (Ans. A)
Explanation:
Prions are proteins which can trigger normal proteins to fold abnormally, and they are present in the brain. They are causing many types of neurodegenerative diseases in both humans and animals. Which are known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies.
Prions can enter the brain with the help of infection, also can arise from the gene mutation that encodes the proteins, and sometimes this affects humans by infected meat.
If a person infected from prion disease, it affects central nervous system tissues like brain, eye tissues and spinal cord.
Beadle and Tatum's concept of the gene has been further refined to state which of the following most correct and current idea?
a. one gene - one enzyme
b. one gene - one polysaccharide
c. one gene - one metabolic block
d. one gene - one allele
Answer:
a. one gene - one enzyme
Explanation:
Genes are connected to enzymes was first suggested by Sir Archibald Garrod. Later on, Beadle and Tatum carried out genetic studies on Neurospora and confirmed Garrod's hypothesis.
The link between genes and enzymes was called “one gene-one enzyme hypothesis”.
But this hypothesis is not accurate and changed because some proteins are encoded by genes are not enzymes. Some genes do not encode a whole protein but a subunit of a protein. In general, one polypeptide (a chain of amino acids) encoded by one gene.
A double stranded base-paired structure formed by folding a single strand of DNA or RNA back upon itself.
a. mirrorlike palindrome
b. A-DNA
c. B-DNA
d. hairpin
Answer:
d. hairpin
Explanation:
A double-stranded base-paired structure formed by folding a single strand of DNA or RNA back upon itself like a hairpin. Base pairs are the unit of nitrogenous bases which are joined together by hydrogen bonds. They synthesize the double helix model which contribute the folded structure of both RNA and DNA. Sugar and phosphate is the backbone of DNA. DNA has four nitrogenous bases named adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine.
Some bacteria may be able to respond to environmental stress by increasing the rate at which mutations occur during cell division. How might this be accomplished? Might there be an evolutionary advantage of this ability? Explain.
Answer:
All the organisms has developed some methods to respond towards the changing environment. Bacteria also develops some mechanism by which they are able to tolerate the external environment.
Some bacteria respond towards environment by increasing the rate of mutation. This mutation can be accomplished as it creates the formation of oncogenes in the bacteria. The cyclins and kinases of cell cycle gets mutated that leads to the uncontrolled growth of cell bacteria. This produces an evolutionary advantage to bacteria as it allows the bacteria to grow in the hostile environment. For example: the development of resistant strain of bacteria towards a specific drug.
Bacteria can increase mutation rates during cell division to adapt to environmental changes, using mechanisms like genetic recombination, bacterial conjugation, and adaptive mutation. By doing so, they can rapidly evolve, leading to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains. However, these mutations do not arise directly in response to environmental changes, rather pre-existing genes within the bacterial population are selected for survival.
Explanation:Bacteria may increase the rate of mutations during cell division to respond to environmental stressors such as exposure to antibiotics. This is accomplished via mechanisms like genetic recombination, bacterial conjugation, and adaptive mutation, which can alter the genetic composition of the bacteria, allowing them to adapt to new conditions.
For instance, in mechanisms like genetic recombination and bacterial conjugation, bacteria exchange genetic material to increase genetic diversity, allowing them to respond more adaptively to environmental changes. Adaptive mutation meanwhile, allows organisms to undergo mutations to adapt to stressful conditions.
Such genetic variability combined with a short generation time, allows bacteria to evolve rapidly, leading to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains. This rapid adaptability gives bacteria a significant evolutionary advantage as it improves their survival in hostile environments.
However, it is vital to note that while increased mutation rates can lead to antibiotic resistance, these mutations do not arise in direct response to environmental changes, such as the introduction of antibiotics. Instead, pre-existing genes within the bacterial population are selected for survival under such conditions.
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Plastids that are surrounded by more than two membranes are evidence of
a. evolution from mitochondria.
b. fusion of plastids.
c. origin of the plastids from archaea.
d. secondary endosymbiosis.
Answer:
d. secondary endosymbiosis.
Explanation:
When a living cell acquires another organism that eventually becomes a part of this cell, this process is known as primary endosymbiosis.When an organism that has already undergone primary endosymbiosis engulfs another eukaryotic organism then this process is known as secondary endosymbiosis. Secondary endosymbiosis has been known to occur in plastids because of which they are surrounded by two membranes. This bilayer is present because one of the layers is the original outer membrane of the organism and the other membrane is that of the organism that has been engulfed.Which of the following vectors holds the largest pieces of DNA?
a. plasmids
b. bacteriophage
c. YACs
d. PACs
e. cosmids
Answer:
c. YACs
Explanation:
YACs, the Yeast artificial chromosomes are the high capacity vectors designed to carry the eukaryotic genes and carry the insert of 200-2000 kb.
YACs carry origin of replication from yeast, selectable markers and sequences derived from telomeres and centromere to maintain the stability of the insert during cell division.
The insert size for plasmids, bacteriophage, PACs, and cosmids is about 0.1-10 kb, 5-25 kb, 100-300 kb, 35-45 kb respectively.
Rods are light sensitive cells of the retina that provide information about color to the brain.
a. True
b. False
Answer:
The correct answer will be option-false.
Explanation:
The eye contains a layer of photoreceptor cells at the back of the eye called retina. The retina contains two types of photoreceptor cells called Cones and rods.
The rod cells contain only one types of pigment and are very sensitive to light and dark changes but cones contains three types of photoreceptors which are sensitive to red, blue and green color.
The cone cell sends signals to the brain about these colors where the brain perceives and produce an image.
Thus, option- false is the correct answer.
When the corpus luteum degenerates
A. Circulating levels of estrogen and progesterone rapidly decline.
B. FSH and LH secretion start to rise as the inhibitory effects of the gonadal steroids are withdrawn.
C. The endometrium sloughs off.
D. Both A and B are correct.
E. All of the preceding are correct.
Answer:
E. All of the preceding are correct
Explanation:
When the corpus luteum stops secreting progesterone and estrogen, the
Concentration of these hormones in the blood drops.
As a result, small arteries in the endometrium contract, reducing
the oxygen supply. Menstruation, which marks the beginning
of a new cycle, begins when cells die (due to the lack of oxygen) and blood vessels break and bleed. Estrogen concentrations and
Progesterone are now too low to inhibit the anterior pituitary,
so the secretion of HSF and HL grows again.
Complete the following statements using as many of the following terms as are appropriate: mitosis, meiosis I (first meiotic division), meiosis Il (second meiotic division), and none (not mitosis nor meiosis I nor meiosis Il). a. The spindle apparatus is present in cells undergoing_____ b. Chromosome replication occurs just prior to_____ c. The cells resulting from____ in a haploid cell have a ploidy of n. (d). The cells resulting from____ in a diploid cell have a ploidy of n. (e). Homologous chromosome pairing regularly occurs during_____ (f). Non-homologous chromosome pairing regularly occurs during_____ (g). Physical recombination leading to the production of recombinant progeny classes occurs during____ (h). Centromere division occurs during_____ (i). Non-sister chromatids are found in the same cell during
Mitosis is responsible for cell division, meiosis I reduces ploidy level, crossing over and chromosome recombination occur in meiosis I, and non-sister chromatids are found in the same cell during meiosis I.
Explanation:a. The spindle apparatus is present in cells undergoing mitosis.
b. Chromosome replication occurs just prior to meiosis I.
c. The cells resulting from meiosis I in a haploid cell have a ploidy of n. (d). The cells resulting from meiosis II in a diploid cell have a ploidy of n.
e. Homologous chromosome pairing regularly occurs during meiosis I.
f. Non-homologous chromosome pairing regularly occurs during meiosis II.
g. Physical recombination leading to the production of recombinant progeny classes occurs during meiosis I.
h. Centromere division occurs during meiosis II.
i. Non-sister chromatids are found in the same cell during meiosis I.
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Which of the following does NOT belong with the others?
a. canine
b. dentin
c. enamel
d. pulp
e. crown
Answer:
a. canine
Explanation:
a. Canine does not belong with the other because of canine a type of teeth while others are the components of a particular tooth.
Canines are single-rooted, strong and pointed teeth. Total four canines are found in a human used for tearing the food or anything.
b. Dentin is hard tissue which is located inside the enamel of a teeth.
c. Enamel is the outer most part of a tooth known as hardest part of the body.
d. The pulp is a space inside a tooth where blood vessels and nerves take place.
e. Crown, is the visible portion of a tooth in the mouth.
Why would a geneticist study a yeast cell or a fruit fly or a mouse in order to understand human genes and human biology?
Answer:
Due to common origin and similarity of genes.
Explanation:
Fruit fly and yeasts are common model organisms that are used by scientists to understand universal biochemical pathways.The universal biochemical pathways exist across different organisms because they share a common origin and have similar genes. The existence of similar genes helps the scientists to manipulate these model organisms such as yeast and fruit fly in the laboratory to understand human genes and human biology as it is ethically prohibited to perform experiments on humans, however, the same can be done on the mouse, fruit fly and yeast cell. Humans share 44 % of their genes with the fruit fly, 26% with yeast cell and 92% with a mouse.Final answer:
Geneticists study model organisms like yeast cells, fruit flies, and mice because they share significant genetic and biological characteristics with humans, making them practical and efficient for genetics research. These organisms facilitate the understanding of human genes and can be easily modified and cultured, allowing for more rapid scientific progress.
Explanation:
A geneticist would study organisms like yeast, fruit flies, and mice to understand human genes and biology because these organisms, known as model organisms, share many genetic and biological similarities with humans. Fundamentally, yeast cells (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) as eukaryotic organisms, produce and modify proteins in a way comparable to human cells, making them valuable for recombinant DNA technology experiments. Similarly, the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) and the house mouse (Mus musculus) have been used extensively in genetic research because they have well-sequenced genomes and exhibit biological processes analogous to those in humans, such as metabolizing alcohol.
Fruit flies are particularly important because they are able to metabolize alcohol like humans, providing insights into genes affecting sensitivity to alcohol. This research holds the promise of understanding and potentially addressing variations in alcohol sensitivity in humans. Additionally, model organisms are generally easier to study due to their simpler structure, shorter generation times, and the ease with which they can be genetically modified.
We know the planet can't support an ever-increasing human population. At some point humans will outstrip the resources available. Are we doomed?
A. Definitely
B. No. With foresight and planning, we can possibly reach a sustainable equilibrium before it is too late.
C. There's no way to know. We just have to do what we do and hope for the best.
D. No. Technology will keep expanding our resources to keep up with population growth, like has happened with agriculture so far.
E. Wealthy countries like the United States will be okay, but developing countries are doomed.
Answer:
A definitely
Explanation:
Us human are evil.
that's my honesty
Final answer:
Population growth and Earth's resources are at odds, with concerns over carrying capacity and sustainability. Technological and planning efforts can mitigate the situation, aiming for sustainable equilibrium and zero population growth in developed nations. Careful management of resources is essential to avoid a population catastrophe.
Explanation:
The question of whether an ever-increasing human population can be sustained on Earth revolves around notions of carrying capacity, resource depletion, and sustainability. The limits of growth debate considers whether societies can grow indefinitely or face a limit based on Earth's resources. With the current ecological footprint, some argue that we have already surpassed Earth's capacity to support our population, leading to environmental damage and extreme poverty. Nonetheless, the prospect of a sustainable equilibrium depends on human actions, including the use of technology, planning, and global cooperation to manage resources wisely.
Sustainability efforts and technological advancements in agriculture, energy, and water management are vital to expanding resources and reducing the ecological footprint. Nevertheless, environmental alterations, ranging from climate change to biodiversity loss, have resulted from technological interventions, casting uncertainty over the capacity for continued support of human populations without significant changes to consumption and production patterns.
Achieving zero population growth in some economically developed countries suggests that stabilizing populations is feasible. However, the disparities between developed and developing nations in reaching such a balance remain a critical challenge. The path to avoiding a population crash involves mindful stewardship of Earth's resources and equitable distribution to prevent drastic outcomes for humanity.
___________ is a molecule that picks up electrons from NADH dehydrogenase and delivers it to cytochrome C reductase
a. Ubiquinone
b. Quinone
c. dehydrogenase
d. ATP synthase
Answer:
Ubiquinone.
Explanation:
Electron transport chain is the important cycle in which electrons are transferred are from one complexes to another complexes and couples it with proton transfer. This is important for the formation of ATP molecule.
Ubiquinone acts as a mobile carrier in the electron transport chain. The ubiquinone accepts electron from the NADH dehydrogenase. The accepted electron is then transferred to the complex III ( cytochrome C reductase). Both oxidation and reduction occur in this step.
Thus, the correct answer is option (a).
The reaction-center chlorophyll of photosystem I is known as P700 because
A) there are 700 chlorophyll molecules in the center
B) this pigment isbest at absorbing light with a wavelength of 700 nm.
C) there are 700 photosystem I components to each chloroplast.
D) it absorbs 700 photons per minute
Answer:
The correct answer will be option-B.
Explanation:
Photosystem of a plant is complex pigment-protein molecules which absorbs the light energy required for the formation of a glucose molecule.
Two types of Photosystem are present in the plants which are: P₆₈₀ and P₇₀₀. The 680 and 700 denote the wavelength of the light energy absorbed by the pigment of the chloroplast. The electrons get excited only at their absorbing wavelength.
Thus, Option-B is the correct answer.
The reaction-center chlorophyll of photosystem I, known as P700, is named for its ability to absorb light optimally at a wavelength of 700 nm.
Explanation:The reaction-center chlorophyll of photosystem I is known as P700 because this pigment is best at absorbing light with a wavelength of 700 nm. You can deduce this from the way reaction center chlorophylls in photosystems are named. For example, P680 reaction centers, found in photosystem II, are named for their peak light absorption at 680 nm.
Importantly, the naming does not reflect the number of chlorophyll molecules or photosystem components, nor does it relate to the number of photons absorbed per minute, but it is solely based on the wavelength of light that is most effectively absorbed by the pigment.
Describe the steps in transcription that require complementary base pairing.
Answer:
Explanation:
Transcription takes place in nucleus in the presence of the enzyme RNA polymerase.
During transcription, the code present in DNA gets transcribed into the code in mRNA. (messenger RNA)
RNA even though is a single stranded shows base pairing.
The pre-mRNA gets created from the DNA.
DNA has two strands, one of these strands acts as coding and another non coding strand.
The DNA shows base pairing with AGTC. [A-Adenine, G- Guanine, T-Thymine and C- Cytosine]
Whereas mRNA base pairing with AGUC. [ U- Uracil ]
Here in mRNA, instead of thymine, uracil gets paired.
According to base pairing of coding strand/sense strand of DNA, complementary bases pairs in 5'---->3' direction in mRNA.
The mRNA created looks exactly like the non-coding strand/sense strand of DNA except instead of thymine, uracil gets replaced.
The pre-RNA undergoes splicing, capping and tailing to form mature mRNA.
Final answer:
During transcription's initiation phase, RNA polymerase binds to a promoter, unwinds DNA, and catalyzes complementary base pairing between RNA nucleotides and DNA template, forming mRNA. Elongation continues this process, and termination occurs when specific base-pairing signals the end of transcription.
Explanation:
In transcription, the formation of the mRNA strand from a DNA template involves specific steps where complementary base pairing is essential. Initiating the process, RNA polymerase binds to a gene's promoter region during the initiation phase and unwinds the DNA helix, allowing one of the DNA strands to be 'read'. The new mRNA strand grows by the addition of RNA nucleotides that form hydrogen bonds with the complementary deoxyribonucleotides of the unwound DNA template strand. Here, the base cytosine (C) pairs with guanine (G), guanine (G) with cytosine (C), adenine (A) with uracil (U), and thymine (T) with adenine (A).
The elongation phase of transcription includes the continued addition of RNA nucleotides. Complementary base pairing ensures the correct sequence of nucleotides is added to the growing mRNA strand. The termination phase concludes transcription;
Complementary base pairs also play a role in the termination of transcription. Unique sequences in the DNA signal the end of the mRNA transcript, and following the base-pairing rules, these sequences can form structures such as hairpins that signal RNA polymerase to stop transcription.
What is a biogeographic realm? List eight of them. How do biogeographic realms indicate relatedness in terms of biodiversity at the global level?
Answer:
Biogeographic realms refer to the huge spaces or regions on the surface of the Earth within which the development of ecosystems takes place. The animal and plant species witnessed in a biogeographic realm share identical features all the way through.
The eight biogeographic realms are the afrotropical realm, Indomalayan realm, Antarctica realm, Neotropical realm, Nearctic realm, Palaearctic realm, Oceanian realm, and Australian realm.
The biodiversity signifies the variability between the living species in every possible manner. Each of the biogeographic realm exhibiting identical environmental conditions or identical mediators of modification has been found to comprise an identical kind of biota.
However, diversity can be found within it too. For example, the tropical moist rainforest found in any section of the globe will share identical procedures and vegetation, however, its specific structure will vary on the basis of the biogeographic realm in which it is witnessed.
Analogous adaptation to the similar kind of environmental conditions between the distinct species of the distinct biogeographic realm can be witnessed at a global level.
Cells of plants and animals have _____________.
a. central vacuole and mitochondria
b. cell membrane and cell wall
c. chromosomes and chloroplasts
d. nucleus and DNA
Answer:
cell membrane and cell wall
Meiosis provides for or leads to several different forms of genetic variation. For example:
a. it maximizes the mutation rate of DNA
b. it minimizes the mutation rate of DNA
c. it changes individual chromosomes through the process of "crossing over
d. it changes individual chromosomes through the process of nonrandom mutation
e. it doubles the number of chromosomes that were present at the beginning of the process
Answer:
a. it maximizes the mutation rate of DNA
Explanation:
b. False
In fact, it maximizes due to the crossing over process that occurs in metaphase.
c. False
"Crossing over" doesn't change the chromosomes individually, but in homologue pairs.
d. False
It is a random process
e. False
It doesn't double the number of chromosomes, but the genetic load
Which of the following does NOT contribute to genetic variation among plants?
a. Flowering time
b. An increased number of chromosomes
c. Mutations
d. Genetic recombination
Answer:
The correct answer will be option-A.
Explanation:
Genetic variation is the difference in the DNA sequences of individuals in a population. Genetic recombination is the main reason for the diversity of organism on earth.
The genetic variation takes place during gamete formation by recombination of DNA sequences which takes place during prophase of meiosis I.
Since genetic variation involves changes in the coding segments of the DNA called genes which leads to mutations, therefore, flowering time does not influence the genetic variation and option-A is the correct answer
Although meat lacks cellwalls, repeated freezing and thawing
produces the bad taste offreezer burn. What is the main organelle
involved in thisautodigestion?
Answer:
Lysosome
Explanation:
Freezer burn occurs due to the sublimation of ice in unprotected meat rich in muscles during long-frozen storage. It appears after thawing. The ice crystals rupture the lysosomes which in turn contain hydrolyzing enzymes.
Leakage of the hydrolytic lysosomal enzyme causes freezer burn and affects the appearance of the frozen meat. The hydrolytic enzymes of lysosomes partially digest the cells which in turn impart bad flavor to the stored food.
The genotype of F1 individuals in a tetrahybrid cross is AaBbCcDd. Assuming independent assortment of these four genes, what are the probabilities that F2 offspring will have the following genotypes?
(a) aabbccdd
(b) AaBbCcDd
(c) AABBCCDD
(d) AaBBccDd
(e) AaBBCCdd
Answer:
Explanation:
(a) aabbccdd : 0.4%
(b) AaBbCcDd : 6.3%
(c) AABBCCDD : 0.4%
(d) AaBBccDd : 1.6 %
(e) AaBBCCdd: 0.8 %
doing the tetrahybrid cross can be awfully difficult. You can always search for online sites that can help you with it.
Which of the following is not true of RNA processing?
a. Exons are cut out before mRNA leaves the nucleus.
b. Nucleotides may be added at both ends of the RNA.
c. Ribozymes may function in RNA splicing.
d. RNA splicing can be catalyzed by spliceosomes.
The correct answer is option d, as RNA splicing is indeed catalyzed by spliceosomes.
Explanation:d. RNA splicing can be catalyzed by spliceosomes.
In RNA processing, the process of removing introns and joining exons together is called RNA splicing. This process is facilitated by the presence of ribozymes, which are RNA molecules that catalyze chemical reactions. One type of ribozyme involved in RNA splicing is the spliceosome, a large and complex assembly of proteins and RNA.
Therefore, the correct answer is option d, as RNA splicing is indeed catalyzed by spliceosomes.
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The incorrect statement about RNA processing is that 'Exons are cut out before mRNA leaves the nucleus.', as it is actually the introns that are removed, not the exons. The correct answer is a.
The student has asked which statement is not true about RNA processing. The correct answer to this question is 'a. Exons are cut out before mRNA leaves the nucleus.' In fact, during RNA processing, it is the introns that are cut out while the exons are joined together. This process, known as splicing, is essential for converting the pre-mRNA transcript into a mature mRNA molecule that can be translated into protein.
The modifications that occur during RNA processing in eukaryotic cells include the addition of a 5' cap and a poly-A tail to the pre-mRNA, and the removal of introns by splicing which can be catalyzed by spliceosomes or ribozymes. Different splicing patterns can lead to the production of various mRNA transcripts from the same DNA sequence, a phenomenon known as alternative splicing.
Therefore, the statement that 'Exons are cut out...' is not correct since exons are the sections that remain in mRNA after the introns have been removed. RNA processing includes the removal of introns, addition of nucleotides at both ends, and splicing by spliceosomes or ribozymes.
The light reaction of photosynthesis does not include
A) chemiosmosis
B) oxygen liberation
C) charge separation
D) electron transport
Answer:
The correct answer will be option-C.
Explanation:
Photosynthesis is a complex process which converts light energy into chemical energy which is used to form the glucose molecule. Photosynthesis occurs in two stages: light-dependent and light-independent reaction.
The light-dependent reaction is the reaction which takes place in the sunlight and converts light energy to chemical energy in ATP and NADPH molecules.
The light-dependent begins when photosystem absorbs light energy which causes the excitation of the electrons provided by chlorophyll molecule. The excited electrons get accepted by electron acceptor molecule and a chain of electron flow begins called electron transport chain.
This creates a scarcity of electron in photosystem which causes hydrolysis of the water molecule as a result oxygen gas is released. The electron flow leads to the synthesis of ATP molecules through chemiosmosis.
Thus, Option-C is the correct answer.
All of the following are characteristics of benign tumors EXCEPT
A. they do not spread.
B. can sometimes be present as cysts.
C. cannot increase in size.
D. cause problems only when they become large enough to interfere with the normal functioning of neighboring organs.
E. are considered noncancerous.
The tissues are higher organisation level than ___________
a. organism
b. cells
c. organ systems
d. organs
Answer:
Cells
Explanation:
Cells are the structural and functional unit of life. Tissues are a group of closely associated similar cells. These groups of cells work together to perform a specific function.
Organs are made of many related tissues while various related organs together make the organ systems.
For example, epithelial tissues are the group of cells that line the body cavities and serve in the protection of body surfaces and internal organs.
What are the four main human activities that cause a loss of biodiversity?
a. Preservation, habitat destruction, overharvesting, and use of chemical pollutants
b. Habitat destruction, invasive species displacement, use of chemical pollutants, and overharvesting
c. Overharvesting, conservation, use of chemical pollutants, and invasive species displacement
d. conservation, preservation, use of chemical pollutants, and overharvesting
e. Habitat destruction, overharvesting, conservation, and use of chemical pollutants
Answer:
The correct answer will be option-B.
Explanation:
Biodiversity represents the variety of the biological organism-form microorganism to plant and animals in any particular habitat.
The biodiversity loss is a serious problem in the modern world which is caused by the growth rate of humans and resource exploitation.
Humans depend on the natural resources for their use due to which they modify the natural area leading to the habitat loss. They over-harvest the natural resources like aquatic organisms mainly fishery industry.
The growth rate of humans has forced us, humans, to increase productivity in every area sue to which humans use harmful chemicals like pesticides and insecticides which directly affect biodiversity. it leads to algal bloom and eutrophication of small water bodies.
The introduction of exotic species to any area results in the displacement of the invasive species of the area which directly affects the natural habitat.
Thus, Option-B is the correct answer.
Answer:
The Correct answer is B
Explanation:
The loss of biodiversity can be focused on the activities of Human beings on the world's ecosystem which is the major cause of its loss.Overexploitation of natural resources is the human activities which are the major cause of biodiversity loss.Population growth and overconsumption is one of the major cause of Human activity which is responsible for the loss of Biodiversity.What is ATP's importance in the cell? ATP stores energy in carbonyl groups. When a carbonyl group is removed, energy is released to be used in cellular processes. ATP contains a long hydrocarbon tail and is important in storing energy. ATP is an important component of cell membranes because it is nonpolar and hydrophobic. ATP can add phosphate groups, thereby releasing energy that can be used in cellular processes. ATP stores the potential to react with water, thereby removi
ATP is essential in a cell as it stores and transfers energy required for various cellular activities. Its energy is stored in high-energy phosphate bonds, which are broken to facilitate energy release. It does not contribute to the cell membrane structure due to its polar, hydrophilic characteristics.
Explanation:ATP, or Adenosine Triphosphate, plays a crucial role in the cell as it acts as a medium for energy storage and transfer. It is the main source of energy for most cellular processes. ATP doesn't store energy in carbonyl groups, rather it stores energy in the high-energy phosphate bonds. These bonds are broken to release the energy needed for various cellular activities.
ATP is not an important component of cell membranes, nor does it have a long hydrocarbon tail. It doesn't contribute to the structure of the cell membrane because it is polar and hydrophilic, unlike the major constituents of the cell membrane - phospholipids, which are both hydrophobic and hydrophilic.
The process of ATP releasing energy involves hydrolysis where a phosphate group is removed, allowing the stored energy to be used for various metabolic and physiological processes within the cell. It doesn't add phosphate groups but rather loses them in the process of energy release.
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ATP is the primary energy currency of the cell, storing energy in high-energy phosphate bonds and releasing it to power cellular processes. Cells produce ATP through cellular respiration, and it is used in various essential activities like metabolism and muscle contraction. ATP is continually recycled within the cell to maintain energy balance.
The Importance of ATP in Cellular Processes
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is often described as the energy currency of the cell. It is a molecule that stores and transports chemical energy within cells. ATP's energy is stored in its phosphate ester bonds, particularly the two high-energy phosphate anhydride linkages. When one of these bonds is broken, usually through the removal of a terminal phosphate group, energy is released. This energy is utilized in a variety of cellular processes, including metabolism, active transport, muscle contraction, and cell division.
Cells produce ATP during cellular respiration, a process which involves the oxidation of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The oxidative reactions that produce ATP occur in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of the cell. Once produced, ATP can be used immediately or stored for short periods until the energy is required for cellular reactions or for performing mechanical work, such as muscle contraction.
Phosphorylation is the process by which ATP transfers a phosphate group to another molecule. This process requires energy and is a key mechanism by which cells convert ATP's stored energy into a form that can do biological work, powering a vast array of endergonic reactions in the cell. ATP is continually recycled within the cell; it is constantly being made from ADP and inorganic phosphate and used up in cellular activities, maintaining the energy homeostasis of the cell.
Explain in a concise manner:
(a) Factors affecting fermentation
(b) Types of fermentations
(c) Industrial uses of fermentation
(d) Isolation of microorganisms
(e) Component parts of fermentation
Answer:
Explanation:
A) Factors affecting fermentation
Factors which influence the rate of fermentation are as follows-
1) Nutritional requirements-
The media plays a crucial role in the process. Adequate amount of nutrients like C, N , K , P, O2 etc are necessary for the growth and metabolic activity of the microorganisms.
2) Temperature- Optimum temperature is required for the apt growth of the biomass.
3) pH of the fermentation process -Microorganisms grow, multiply and produce active proteins in adequate physio-friendly environment.
4) Mechanical process and Oxygen Transfer- Agitation
The agitation in the reactor allows enough mixing and oxygen transfer which enhances the morphology of the microorganisms.
B) Types of Fermentation
1) Batch type fermentation- The necessary nutrients required are added before inoculation. It is a discontinuous process
2) Fed batch fermentation- Initial medium concentration is low.
3) Continuous fermentation- Fresh media is continuously added to the reactor
4) Solid state fermentation- It is the growth of microorganisms on solid material in the absence of water.
5) Anaerobic fermentation- In the presence of oxygen
6) Aerobic fermentation- in the absence of oxygen
C) Industrial uses of fermentation
Fermentation has multiple uses in various sectors like
1)Agriculture- Plant growth hormones
2)Industrial Fermentation- Enzyme production, antibiotic production, ethanol production etc.
3)Agro-food industry- Food additives
D) Isolation of microorganisms
Isolation is the separation of microorganisms from each other in a mixed culture.
Few techniques employed to isolate the culture are- Streaking, Plating, Dilution, Enriched Procedure and Single cell technique.
E) Components parts of fermentation
There are three parts of a fermentation process namely
-Upstream processes: Primary screening, preparation of pure culture and selection of production strain at lab scale level
-Production processes: Continuous monitoring the production process to maintain best possible conditions for maximum product formation
-Downstream processes:The extraction of the product and its purification and the disposal of effluents produced by the process.
What causes ulcers? What prevents them?
Gastric ulcer is nothing more than an injury to the tissue lining the stomach. It may also be called peptic ulcer or stomach ulcer.
The most common cause of ulcer formation is the proliferation of a bacterium called Helicobacter pylori. There are other less common factors such as diet, overuse of drugs, smoking, stress and alcohol.
The best way to prevent an ulcer contraction is to maintain hygiene habits to prevent Helicobacter pylori infection. It is also good to avoid excessive consumption of alcohol, smoking and medications such as pain killers.
A particular virus with DNA as its genetic material has the following proportions of nucleotides: 20% A, 35% T, 25%G, and 20% C. How can you explain this result?
Answer:
Virus may be defined the acellular organism that contain DNA or RNA as their genetic material. Thee virus may contains double stranded or single stranded DNA or RNA molecule.
The DNA has composition of 20% A, 35% T, 25%G, and 20% C. The virus DNA does not follow Chargaff's rule in which the amount of thymine is not equal to the amount of adenine. The amount of guanine is not equal to the amount of cytosine. The DNA virus consist of single stranded DNA.
The anticodon of a particular tRNA molecule is
a. complementary to the corresponding mRNA codon.
b. complementary to the corresponding triplet in rRNA.
c. the part of tRNA that bonds to a specific amino acid.
d. catalytic, making the tRNA a ribozyme.
Answer:
The anticodon of a particular tRNA molecule is a. a complementary to the corresponding mRNA codon. Below, I let you an explanation of how DNA translation ocurrs as a complement to your study.
Explanation:
The translation of the genetic code is a process in which RNA becomes an amino acid junction to form a protein. This is a process which is divided into three parts: initiation, elongation and termination.
In the Initiation stage the ribosome binds with the mRNA and the first tRNA so that translation can begin.
Initiation :
For this process it is necessary to have:
• A ribosome (specialized organelle)
• An mRNA which carries the instructions
• A "start" tRNA that carries the first protein amino acid
When these three things come together, the initiation complex is formed, which will begin the formation of proteins. For this process it is necessary that the cell provides energy in the form of guanosine triphosphate (GTP )
Elongation occurs when the polypeptide chain increases in length.
In the ribosome there are several specialized places for each function. The first tRNA, which carries methionine, is located in the center of the ribosome space in a place called site P. Next to this site, a new codon is exposed, in another space and is called site A. Site A will be the location space for the next tRNA, whose codon is complementary to the codon that is exposed. This means that each tRNA is accompanied by auxiliary proteins, and only one tRNA that binds perfectly will be "released" at site A. To release the tRNA, a molecule that stores energy mentioned above, guanosine triphosphate (GTP) is used.
After the corresponding tRNA is located at site A, the formation of the peptide bond is given which is responsible for connecting one amino acid to another.
Termination occurs when a stop codon in the mRNA (UAA, UAG, or AGA) enters site A. Here release factors read the termination codons and are located at site P these release factors interfere with the function of the enzyme responsible for forming the peptide bonds then finally the tRNA chain is separated, and the newly dormant protein is released
The anticodon of a particular tRNA molecule is complementary to the corresponding mRNA codon. The correct option is A.
When protein synthesis is taking place, the anticodon of a tRNA molecule is a three-nucleotide sequence that is complementary to the matching codon on the mRNA molecule.
The correct translation of the genetic code is made possible by this complementary matching, which enables the tRNA to identify and attach to the mRNA codon through base pairing. The exact amino acid that will be incorporated into the expanding polypeptide chain during protein synthesis is determined by the anticodon.
Thus, the ideal selection is option A.
Learn more about mRNA codon here:
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